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cellular confinement
Cellular Confinement Systems (CCS)—also known as geocells—are widely used in construction for erosion control, soil stabilization on flat ground and steep slopes, channel protection, and structural reinforcement for load support and earth retention.〔(Geosynthetics in landscape architecture and design )〕 Typical cellular confinement systems are made with ultrasonically welded high-density polyethylene (HDPE) strips or Novel Polymeric Alloy (NPA)—and expanded on-site to form a honeycomb-like structure—and filled with sand, soil, rock, gravel or concrete.〔State of California Department of Transportation, Division of Environmental Analysis, Stormwater Program. Sacramento, CA.("Cellular Confinement System Research." ) 2006.〕〔''(Managing Degraded Off-Highway Vehicle Trails in Wet, Unstable, and Sensitive Environments )'', US Department of Agriculture in conjunction with USDOT, Federal Highway Administration. Page 28. October 2002.〕
== History of cellular confinement ==
Research and development of cellular confinement systems (CCS) began with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in 1975 to devise a method for building tactical roads over soft ground.〔Webster, S.L. & Watkins J.E. 1977, Investigation of Construction Techniques for Tactical Bridge Approach Roads Across Soft Ground. Soils and Pavements Laboratory, US Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical Report S771, September 1977.〕 Engineers found that sand-confinement systems performed better than conventional crushed stone sections and they could provide an expedient construction technique for access roads over soft ground, without being adversely affected by wet weather conditions.
〔Webster, S.L. 1979, Investigation of Beach Sand Trafficability Enhancement Using Sand-Grid Confinement and Membrane Reinforcement Concepts – Report 1, Geotechnical Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical Report GL7920, November 1979.〕〔Webster, S.L. 1981, Investigation of Beach Sand Trafficability Enhancement Using Sand-Grid Confinement and Membrane Reinforcement Concepts – Report 2, Geotechnical Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical Report GL7920(2), February 1981〕 The US Army Corps of Engineers in Vicksburg, Mississippi (1981) experimented with a number of confining systems, from plastic pipe mats, to slotted aluminum sheets to prefabricated polymeric systems called sand grids and then, cellular confinement systems. Today cellular confinement systems are typically made from strips 50–200 mm wide, ultrasonically welded at intervals along their width. The CCS is folded and shipped to the job site in a collapsed configuration (see picture above).
Efforts for civilian commercialization of the cellular confinement system by the Presto Products Company, led to the Geoweb®.〔(Prestogeo.com )〕 This cellular confinement system was made from high density polyethylene (HDPE), relatively strong, lightweight〔Webster, S.L. 1986, Sand-Grid Demonstration Roads Constructed for JLOTS II Tests at Fort Story, Virginia, Geotechnical Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical Report GL8619, November 1986.〕 and suitable for geosynthetic extruding manufacturing. The cellular confinement system was used for load support, slope erosion control and channel lining and earth retention applications in the United States and Canada in the early 1980s.〔Richardson, Gregory N. "Geocells: a 25-year Perspective Part ‘l: Roadway Applications." Geotechnical Fabrics Report (2004).Richardson, Gegory N. "Geocells, a 25-year Perspective Part 2: Channel Erosion Control and Retaining Walls." Geotechnical Fabrics Report 22.8 (2004): 22-27.〕〔Engel, P. & Flato, G. 1987, Flow Resistance and Critical Flow Velocities for Geoweb Erosion Control System, Research and Applications Branch – National Water Research Institute Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, Ontario, Canada, March 1987〕〔Bathurst, R.J, Crowe, R.E. & Zehaluk, A.C. 1993, Geosynthetic Cellular Confinement Cells for Gravity Retaining Wall – Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada, Geosynthetic Case Histories, International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, March 1993, pp. 266-267〕〔Crowe, R.E., Bathurst, R.J. & Alston, C. 1989, Design and Construction of a Road Embankment Using Geosynthetics, Proceedings of the 42’nd Canadian Geotechnical Conference, Canadian Geotechnical Society, Winnipeg, Manitoba, October 1989, pp. 266–271〕
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